Gender myth, discourse, and ‘story lines.'

‘‘We should not romanticize community-based water development projects.'  When Dr. Page said this during our WDA lecture, I started reflecting. Have I been romanticizing community/participation based water development projects? Are we creating narrations that made ourselves believing it and relying on it to persuade others? Today, I will be talking about narrations, linking to post development theories, and critiques on participation based projects.

Imageries come up when we think about women in Africa. Narratives from various sources have influenced our imageries on the topic. We often hear narrations about women in Africa being both heroines and victims (Cornwall, Harrison and Whitehead, 2007). They have the high capacities to survive adverse socio-economic conditions. Their abilities to move towards autonomy despite being gender disadvantaged. They are also heavily burdened, with limited choices and often is at the end of receiving oppression and abuses from the males. Created by development advocates, the term ‘gender' has become a discourse that creates its imageries, oversimplifying the issue. The term itself became a problem rather than a solution. Common notions of gender development, for example, includes ‘Women are less corrupt than men'. Empirical evidence has proven that women are less inclined to take bribes and are less involved in shady political deals. These myths about gender arise when we ignore the context-specific nature of gender relations (Cornwall, Harrison and Whitehead, 2007) and are the base of the distorted sympathetic imageries that many of us has towards women in Africa. As a consequence, it is likely that one falls into the trap of romanticizing women's participation in community-based projects.

Although community-based projects under certain conditions, help towards obtaining a wider access to water,  these are by no means a miracle solution (Jaglin, 2002). In a water-based project in Tanzania, although the project succeeded in achieving community management of water supply and in increasing women's participation in the project, the project did not lead to greater equity of water access nor in the decision-making power for women (Tukai, 2005). A simple focus on increased participation and representation of the poor and women in Africa, without understanding the conditions (in many situations, it is chronic and very complicated) might further marginalize rather than empower the marginalized group (Green, 2006;  HarrissWhite, 2006). 

It may sound obvious that oversimplification and romanticizing should be avoided as much as possible. However, I feel that one main idea from our WAD course was that we should always adjust the water projects based on the specific socio-economical; geophysical conditions of the region. Today practitioners such as Cleaver have argued for the need to adjust constantly the projects to deliver beneficial outcomes regarding equity in access to water as well as efficiency in water managements (Cleaver et al., 2005). In addition to the constant readjustments, different supporting actions and processes across a range of scales should be included in order to sustain the promoting inclusion (Cleaver and Franks, 2008).

I will end today’s blog with a quote.

‘Debunk the language, simplify the ideas. No nuances, no problems, just solutions.’---Senior international water policy maker commenting on how to present policy to partner governments at DFID consultation meeting, 24 May 2007.

Week 3 The importance of women's participation in water resource management projects at a community level

Conventionally, men are seen to be responsible for productive work, and women essentially are responsible for non-productive work. In the context of irrigation, as a result, men are seen as the best representation of water-related interests and needs of the household at the community level. However, this idea is based on a model that completely separate household activities into the public and the private. While in reality, women work as 'co-farmers' helping with irrigation of main crops as well as watering livestock, irrigating the homestead and using water for cooking, health and sanitation.  (Meizen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 1998)

It is important to recognize women as important users of water. However, it is very common for women to be excluded in water management projects across all levels. (Guerquin et al., 2003) Women's lack of participation in water management projects compared to men may lead to different priorities for public investments whereby topics such as irrigation will be better represented and more knowledgeably discussed in community meetings. (Crow and Sultanan, 2002)

Women's lack of participation is due to various reasons: here are some examples:
1) the lack of suitable timing for community meetings. For example, some community meetings are at night time whereby it is unsafe/unsuitable for women to go out.
2) the need to engage in other productive work.
3) illiteracy impedes them from participating.
4) common norms whereby men are traditionally engaged in public activities while women are confined to their homestead.
5) negotiations are commonly held between landowners (resource owners, head of households) which is predominantly held by men. In cases of men

However, research has shown that women's participation in water supply projects will significantly increase the effectiveness and sustainability of the projects. (Nishimoto, 2003). The exclusion of women in the projects will not only delay the delivery of the benefits but also negatively affect equity and institutional efficiency. (Meizen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 1997).

In the Maimur project in Kenya, women participated in the water management project informed by holding informal meetings at various springs as they drew water. These women argued for improved water supply by separating water points for livestock and human use. Later on, they also urged their husbands to protect the spring head and water pumps. They helped raise registration fees and funds. Women were requested to volunteer where they would prepare meals, and would undertake duties if their husbands were absent such as digging, trenching. These women were not formal members of the negotiation process, but all men in the projects recognised the importance of women's participation in the project. Due to women's involvement, they improved the speed and efficiency of the implementation process.  (Were et al. 2008)

Reference:
Crow, Ben, and Farhana Sultana. 'Gender, Class, And Access To Water: Three Cases In A Poor And Crowded Delta'. Society & Natural Resources 15.8 (2002): 709-724. Web.
Guerquin, François. World Water Actions : Making Water Flow For All. London [etc.]: Earthscan [etc.], 2003. Print.
Meinzen-Dick, R, and M Zwarteveen. 'Gendered Participation In Water Management: Issues And Illustrations From Water Users’ Associations In South Asia.'. Paper prepared for Women and WaterWorkshop International Irrigation Management Institute (1997): n. pag. Print.
Were, Elizabeth, Jessica Roy, and Brent Swallow. 'Local Organisation And Gender In Water Management: A Case Study From The Kenya Highlands'. Journal of International Development 20.1 (2008): 69-81. Web.

Link:
Were et al. 2008
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/doi/10.1002/jid.1428/epdf

Weel 2- Talks on Crap [human waste] and it's association with gender issues

Question: Have you every poohed on bare ground? When you had a conscious mind of course. If yes, did it have any coverage? Grass? Did you wash your hands afterwards?

As odd as these questions may be, in 2008, 2.6 billion people which is 40% of world's population had no access to improved sanitation facilities. (World Bank, 2010) Within that 2.6 billion, 17% of them practiced open defecation that is pretty much poohing onto the ground. Open defecation is  the riskiest sanitation practice of all.   Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest percentage of people with access to improved facilities, only 31% of its population. (World Bank, 2010)


(Picture from wide information, 2014. Access date: 2015-10-28)

As intellectual civilized human being, it is rather common to avoid talking about poos in public that is very understandable. However, inadequate sewage systems or treatment of human waste will not only cause a high level of water-borne diseases but also possibly contaminate drinking water. Pooh carries bacteria and germs, and can be easily carried by the person if he practiced unhygienic act, which might cause water-borne diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid(Wide information, 2014). These diseases are the greatest cause of deaths for children under five years old and can be significantly reduced with the implementation of adequate sanitation.

How are these issues related to gender?
Sanitation especially a troubling issue for girls in education. Without access to toilets in schools, girls often hold until they leave school. Once they hit puberty and starts menstruating, the stress and fear will create barriers to girl's schooling (Sommer's, 2010). Difficulties for girls will occur if there is a lack of access to private toilets and sanitary products. Long school days will increase the possibilities of having leakages. If coupled with frequent harassment by boys in the school, menstruation can easily create stress on to girls. Many Kenya girls view 'menstruation as the most significant social stressor and barrier to schooling (McMahon et al, 2011).

How to tackle the issue of gender and sanitation?
It is necessary to understand that this problem is multi-dimensional and that improved sanitary towels, disposal bins/bags and safe toilet spaces along with efforts to deal with sexual harassment will improve girls’ overall education experience greatly.(Jewitt and Ryley, 2014) World Toilet Organisation is currently improving awareness amongst the public to consider gender issues in developing sanitation programs and policies. (Jewitt and Ryley, 2014)

In the end, I would like to post a Ted video on the importance of sanitation. Although this video talks specifically on sanitation issues in India, I think reflections can be made on Africa as well.

Reference:
Data.worldbank.org, (2010). 40 percent of world population do not use improved sanitation facilities | Data. [online] Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/news/40prct-wrld-pop-dont-use-imprvd-sanitation [Accessed 28 Oct. 2015].

Jewitt, S. and Ryley, H. (2014). It’s a girl thing: Menstruation, school attendance, spatial mobility and wider gender inequalities in Kenya. Geoforum, 56, pp.137-147.

McMahon, S., Winch, P., Caruso, B., Obure, A., Ogutu, E., Ochari, I. and Rheingans, R. (2011). 'The girl with her period is the one to hang her head' Reflections on menstrual management among schoolgirls in rural Kenya. BMC Int Health Hum Rights, 11(1), p.7.

Sommer, M. (2010). Where the education system and women's bodies collide: The social and health impact of girls' experiences of menstruation and schooling in Tanzania. Journal of Adolescence, 33(4), pp.521-529.

Wide Information, (2014). One Billion People Still Practise Open Defecation, Endangering Public Health: UN. [online] Available at: http://wideinformation.com/one-billion-people-still-practise-open-defecation-endangering-public-health-un/ [Accessed 28 Oct. 2015].   

Week1- A general introduction to women and water supplies

'Water is a real problem. If I want more water, I will have to wake up at 5 am. To collect four buckets will take me about eleven hours (from 5 am to 4 pm). We queue, especially on Fridays if the livestock is being watered because then I must fill my bucket and empty it into the cattle trough before I can collect one for myself. We also queue when the dip cattle are queuing. I do my laundry after every two weeks.’----Mrs. M., Nkubini Dip  (Cleaver, 1998)

 The interview quoted above expresses how time and labour consuming is for rural women in Africa to fetch and purify water.  Indeed, water collection can be very laborious as some water sources are located far away from the household. If queuing is needed, a single collection of water can take up to hours or even an entire day.

Women in African communities are often responsible for domestic activities which include water collection for domestic usage. This was the result of the traditions of African communities. Today, women are left with more responsibilities within the households as men leave to search for high pay jobs in urban cities. (Sangodoyin, 1993)

The time and labour consuming is a particular issue for poor households as this poses labour constraints onto the households, limiting women's ability, in particular, to use their time on other more productive work. While wealthier families can hire labour or use cattle (A donkey cart for example) to transport water, families with low income rely greatly on adult women. Typical poor household constitutes of a family with large numbers of small children and few abled adults. The structure of such family puts pressure on the adult women of the household to fetch water.

Hence, setting up pumps for easy access of water can be essential in freeing women from the time-consuming strenuous activity of collecting water for domestic use. This also explains why in regions of Africa, women are more active than men in water development projects. In Kenya, Getechah concluded that women are active participants of 'digging trenches, laying pipes and the movement of construction materials' (Getechah, 1980).In Nigeria, women's association are active in installing pumps for the delivery of water and have expressed more eagerness in the maintenance of rural water systems as compared to their male counterparts. Although, water development projects are not the savior of household poverty since poverty is a complex situation involving the lack of multiple resources, the enforcement of these projects can effectively improve the labour division structure within the household and reduce the pressure on adult women.

Note: the issue around gender and water supply is much more complex, revolving around education, awareness of good water sources and how to purify water, economic constraints, labour availability and labour structure within households, methods of acquiring and preserving water, etc. These issues will be discussed later on.

Reference:

 Cleaver, F. (1998). Incentives and informal institutions: Gender and the management of water. Agriculture and Human Values, 15, pp.347-360.

Getechah, W. (1980). The role of women in rural water development in Kenya. Proceedings of a Workshop on Training, Zomba, Malawi, 5th-12th August, pp.85-88.

Sangodoyin, A. (1993). Women's role in rural water supply and development: Trends and expectations in Nigeria. The Environmentalist, 13(4), pp.255-261.